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Answers

Pinel 4e Lecture 5a
METHODS OF STUDYING THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
Outline
1. Methods of Visualizing the Living Human Brain
a .Contrast X-rays
b. Computerized Axial Tomography
c. Magnetic Resonance Imaging
d. Positron Emission Tomography
e. Functional MRI
2. Recording Psychophysiological Signals
a. Scalp Electroencephalography
b. Measures of Somatic Nervous System Activity
c. Autonomic Nervous System Activity
3. Invasive Physiological and Pharmacological Methods
a. Stereotaxic Surgery
b. Lesion Methods
c. Electrical Stimulation
d. Electrical Recording Methods
e. Psychopharmacological Methods
4. Genetic Engineering
a. Knockouts
b. Gene replacement
Lecture Notes
1. Methods of Visualizing the Living Human Brain
- methods in this section explain how the nervous systems of living humans and animals can be studied
a. Contrast X-rays:
- to take an X-ray photograph of an object, a beam of X-rays is passed through it onto a photographic plate; any part of the object that absorbs X-rays differently than does the surrounding medium will be distinguishable
- standard X-rays are of no use for studying the brain because the brain is composed of many overlapping structures that all absorb X-rays to about the same degree
- the contrast X-ray is a method of solving this problem that can be used in some cases;
a radioopaque material is introduced into the structure of interest to make it “stand out” from the others on an X-ray photograph;
for example, in pneumoencephalography air is worked into the ventricles after its injection into the spinal cerebrospinal fluid (it reveals enlarged or displaced ventricles),
and in angiography radio-opaque dye is injected into the carotid artery (it reveals displacement or enlargement of blood vessels)
b. Computerized Tomography (CT)
- provides a 3-dimensional view of a structure;
brain CT scans are usually composed of 8 or 9 horizontal sections
- the X-ray gun and the X-ray detector rotate in apposition around the brain at one level taking a series of measurements from which an image of one section is constructed; this is repeated at 8 or 9 different levels
- the CT-scan image of the brain is not sharp and is used to visualize large tumors.
c. Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)
- it has higher powers of resolution than CT because X-rays aren't used
the images are created from measurements of the waves emitted by hydrogen atoms when they are placed in a magnetic field;
its clarity stems from the fact that neural structures differ considerably in their density of hydrogen atoms
d. Positron Emission Tomography (PET)
- PET is a method of highlighting brain areas that are active, rather than equally showing all brain structures
the patient is injected with radio-active 2-deoxyglucose;
because 2-DG is structurally similar to glucose, it is taken up by neurons as if it were glucose;
more active neurons need more energy and take up more 2-DG;
but unlike glucose, 2-DG cannot be metabolized by neurons and it accumulates in them
- after injection with radio-active 2-DG the subject engages in the activity under study (e.g., reading) while a PET scan of the brain is being taken;
the PET scan reveals on a series of images of horizontal sections where radio activity has accumulated, and thus it indicates what areas were particularly active during the test
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