(11) Percentage of female workers in rural areas as regular salaried employee is lower than in
urban areas. Write 2 causes for the above fact.
Answers
Answer:
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Answer:
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Explanation:
The number of women working in rural India is declining at a greater pace than that among women in the urban workforce, according to an IndiaSpend analysis of government data.
Sustained high economic growth since the early 1990s has led to improved education and health indicators among India’s women. Yet, women accounted for no more than 25 percent of the labour force in 2011-12, declining from 33 percent in 2005, according to national sample survey report (2014) on employment, a rate worse than neighbouring Bangladesh (29 percent), Nepal (52 percent) and Sri Lanka (34 percent), IndiaSpend reported on May 4, 2017.
But this decline is more marked for rural women, according to data from the ministry of statistics and programme implementation’s National Sample Survey, 2014.
Increases in education—from none to completed secondary school (up to class 12)—are associated with a decline in women’s participation in the rural labour force, from 53.3 percent to 22.4 percent.
The WPR drops with rise in education levels: From 445 per 1,000 rural women who are not literate to 121 for women who have completed secondary education and above.
While most girls in rural India have received primary education, secondary school enrolment has also increased. This may account for the withdrawal of younger women of secondary school-going age from the rural workforce.
For women beyond this age—from 20-64 years—school enrolment is not a factor in work participation. The decline in WPR for rural women, however, affects women at all ages, the NSS data show. This suggests a deeper problem than that implied by the trade-off between the time spent in school and the time spent working.
For women past secondary school-going age, workforce population has increased for urban women, while it has declined for rural women, reflecting the greater availability of formal jobs in urban areas.
Among rural women, only women with higher educational qualifications are finding non-agricultural jobs. Beyond secondary school-going age, the decline in women’s workforce population ratio is not as much as it is for women with intermediate education.
Up to 28.1 percent of rural women who are college graduates are employed, according to a 2018 study by the University of Maryland. “Educated women look mainly for better quality jobs, especially salaried work,” said the study. “The inference might be that if all or most available jobs were salaried, Indian women would show the usual positive relationship of higher rates of employment with more education.”
“However, such jobs are limited and are accessible mainly with higher levels of education,” said the study. “If appropriate jobs were available for women with intermediate levels of education, we might expect higher levels of their labor force participation.”
Improved Transport Infrastructure Increases Rural Women’s Work Participation
Most salaried jobs are in the cities, towns and big villages. Hence, availability of transport and allied infrastructure has an impact on women’s participation in the workforce, according to a 2017 study by University of Maryland that looked at data from India Human Development Survey rounds of 2004-05 and 2011-12, jointly conducted by the University of Maryland and NCAER
The non-agricultural employment rate has also increased significantly for both men and women over the seven years to 2012, though the rate has remained much lower among women than among men. Only 10 percent of women participated in non-agricultural work in 2005, wḣich increased to 17 percent in 2012. .
More women (9 percent) reported being engaged in non-farm work than the 6 percent involved in farm work from 2004-05 to 2011-12, according to the IHDS data. This suggests that the expansion of opportunities due to MGNREGS draws those women into paid labour who might have otherwise continued to work only on family farms. Further, research on IHDS data shows that nearly 45 percent of women MGNREGS workers worked as unpaid labour on family farms during the first wave of IHDS in 2004-05.
Higher allocation of MGNREGS work has been found to raise market wages (for formal work beyond MGNREGS) for male MGNREGS workers, but a similar increase is not statistically significant for women, according to a 2018 study by the NCAER. This underscores the gender bias in access to formal work. Where formal jobs beyond MGNREGS become available in rural areas, these go mostly to male MGNREGS workers, leaving women MGNREGS workers restricted to the informal sector.