14. Though there is lot of diversity in organisms,
these events have remarkable fundamental
similarity
1) Vegetative reproduction
2) Asexual reproduction
3) Sexual reproduction
4) Nutrition
Ne
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Answer:
If we were to review the most recent advances in animal or plant phylogeny and taxonomy, a paragraph detailing the relevance of any of those groups would be superfluous. Animals and plants are studied not only in specialized biology degrees, but even in primary education. Fungi, though, only merit a brief mention in high school text books, and very rarely occupy a central position in university-level biology degrees, generally falling between the fields of botany and microbiology (Editorial, 2017; Freimoser, 2017). Yet Fungi are literally everywhere, shaping the world as we know it. They can be found in the stratosphere (Wainwright, Wickramasinghe, & Rajaratnam, 2003) and the bottom of the Dead Sea (Oren & Gunde-Cimerman, 2012), from antarctic glaciers (Freeman et al., 2009) to torrid deserts (Gonçalves et al., 2016), from the gut of flies (Blackwell, 2017) to deep oceanic sediments (Nagahama et al., 2011), and anywhere in between. Fungi are powerful players in global bio-geochemistry, recycling carbon and mobilizing nitrogen, phosphorus and other bio-elements. They provide essential support to plant life in the form of endophytes and mycorrhizae, while fungal pathogens can decimate plant and animal populations, threatening food supplies and even pushing some species to the brink of extinction. The metabolic singularities of many fungi have provided humanity with fermented foods and beverages to feed us and delight our senses, medicines to cure our bodies, and many compounds with important industrial usages. Fungi themselves are an important and valued source of food, and in the near future fungal biomass might even help to clothe and shelter us (Wojciechowska, 2017; Jones et al., 2018).
Fungal taxonomy has undergone major changes since the recognition of this group in Linnean taxonomy, where it was considered part of the ‘Regnum Vegetabile’ (Linnaeus, 1767). Early classifications included several groups of heterotrophic eukaryotes characterized by their osmotrophic nutrition with diverse phylogenetic affinity, as well as a core of clades collectively deemed the ‘true fungi’, or Eumycota (Whittaker, 1969). True fungi generally share the following traits: (i) the presence of a β-glucan and (generally) chitin cell wall, at least in their spores; (ii) they are usually unicellular, or grow as a mycelium – a multinucleated, walled, cylindrical cell of variable size; (iii) the presence of the amino adipidic pathway for the biosynthesis of lysine; and (iv) the presence of flattened mitochondrial crystae (Adl et al., 2012, 2018). Nevertheless, numerous exceptions exist for virtually all these traits, both in the form of secondary losses within fungi, as well as by their presence in other eukaryotic groups (Richards, Leonard, & Wideman, 2017). Early on, four major phyla were defined within the true fungi, based on their morphological and reproductive traits: Chytridiomycota, Zygomycota, Ascomycota and Basidiomycota (Whittaker, 1969). Later, molecular phylogenies proved the paraphyly of Zygomycota and Chytridiomycota (Tanabe, Watanabe, & Sugiyama, 2005; James et al., 2006a,b, White et al., 2006), as well as the affinity of Microsporidia and the chytrid-like Rozella to the fungal kingdom (Keeling, Luker, & Palmer, 2000; Fischer & Palmer, 2005; James et al., 2006b). More recently, the advent of environmental-sequencing-based technologies have brought about the recognition of a novel highly diverse and cosmopolitan clade of fungal-like organisms that include Rozella and some related genera, for which the terms Rozellidea, Rozellomycota and Cryptomycota have been used (Lara, Moreira, & López-García, 2010; Jones et al., 2011; Adl et al., 2012; James & Berbee, 2012; Corsaro et al., 2014b). Finally, the Aphelidea, a poorly studied clade of amoeboid parasitoids of unicelular algae was found to be sister group to Microsporidia and Rozella, completing the fungal family portrait (Karpov et al., 2014a).
The most up-to-date taxonomy comprises the described diversity of known true fungi, dividing it into nine major lineages: Opisthosporidia, Chytridiomycota, Neocallimastigomycota, Blastocladiomycota, Zoopagomycota, Mucoromycota, Glomeromycota, Ascomycota and Basidiomycota. Together, these lineages form a monophyletic clade, the true fungi (Fig. 1), which is sister to a group of amoeboid protozoans consisting of the Nucleariida (Nuclearia, Micronuclearia, Parvularia) and Funticulida (Fonticula) (Karpov et al., 2014a; Spatafora et al., 2017a; Tedersoo et al., 2018). Below, we describe the main features of these nine fungal lineages, plus several other groups that might represent additional independent lineages or whose affinity to any of the well-defined groups is still not fully resolved.
Explanation: