20.The customs, traditions, and values
systems are examples.
Answers
Explanation:
Social, Personality, and Affective Constructs in Driving
Dwight Hennessy, in Handbook of Traffic Psychology, 2011
3.3 Driving Culture and Norms
Culture represents shared norms, values, traditions, and customs of a group that typically define and guide appropriate and inappropriate attitudes and behaviors. These can occur on a macro level (e.g., national customs and religious holidays) or a more micro level (e.g., family traditions and peer activities). Driving behavior and driving style should be influenced by these cultural processes, given that the driving environment is a social context with very distinct rules and norms that are transmitted between road users across time and generations. Also, although driving laws, licensing procedures, road types, driving styles, and actual driving behaviors will vary regionally and internationally, dangerous and risky driving practices occur universally. Attitudes about driving and personal driving styles are largely learned, which includes influence from parents, peers, media, and other drivers regarding the overall riskiness of driving, as well as the probability of experiencing negative outcomes (Hennessy, Hemingway, & Howard, 2007; Shope & Bingham, 2008). Using Ajzen’s (1985) theory of planned behavior as a framework, Elliott, Armitage, and Baughan (2007) found that subjective norms (the perceived pressure or acceptance of others toward a behavior) were associated with elevated speeding intentions, which subsequently predicted both self-reported and observed speeding behavior in a simulator. In essence, the normative belief that there is a consensus or commonality to unsafe driving behavior may serve as a justification for its personal adoption (Forward, 2009).
Parents represent one potential source of cultural and normative influence on driving behavior, particularly for young drivers. Parental influence on driving begins early in life, well before formal “training years,” through modeling of driving styles, attitudes about safety, reactions to other drivers, and respect for traffic laws (Summala, 1987). Familial models that validate recklessness often encourage riskiness of young drivers (Taubman-Ben-Ari, 2008). Bianchi and Summala (2004) further proposed that parental influence may impart from genetic dispositions that guide personal tendencies of parent drivers, such as sensation seeking or attention, which are then demonstrated to their children. Research has consistently shown that parental attitudes and activities outside the driving environment, particularly lenience of restrictions and control, can impact driving behavior and style of young drivers (Hartos, Eitel, Haynie, & Simons-Morton, 2000). Shope, Waller, Raghunathan, and Patil (2001) found that parental monitoring, nurturing, and connectedness in 10th grade of high school were subsequently linked to lower rates of serious offenses (alcohol related, speeding, and reckless driving) and crashes (single vehicle, at fault, and alcohol related), whereas lower monitoring, nurturance, connectedness, and a greater lenience toward drinking had the opposite effect. Similarly, Prato, Toledo, Lotan, and Taubman-Ben-Ari (2010) determined that risk indexes for young drivers were lower for those whose parents were actively involved in monitoring their child’s driving behavior, whereas lack of supervision exaggerated existing dangerous driving tendencies in their child, such as sensation seeking, increasing overall risk.
Another important source of cultural and normative driving influence is the media, which is prone to promote danger and risk over safety as a “normal” part of driving. Although the media has the potential to help promote a culture of driving safety, in many cultures, television and movies glorify and promote speeding, risk taking, and dangerous driving practices as acceptable or even admirable (Hennessy et al., 2007), particularly for young male drivers. Consistent with social and cognitive learning theories, one primary mechanism by which behavior is acquired is through observing and imitating others. By placing emphasis on the consequences of others’ actions, observation serves as a vicarious learning experience (Bandura, 2001). Hennessy et al. found that speeding, lane violations, and near collisions were elevated in a simulator among drivers previously exposed to a short movie scene of dangerous driving. It is possible that watching media portrayals that endorse driving that is competitive, performed at excessive speeds, or otherwise unsafe increases viewers’ perceived acceptability of such actions and reduces the expectancy of a tragic outcome, which then increases the likelihood they will engage in dangerous driving themselves