Challenges to deepen indian democracy in relation to inequality caste
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At the time of independence, India was characterised by deeply entrenched social hierarchies, defined by caste, gender, region and religion. The feudal zamindari system divided rural society into three broad classes: landlords (zamindars), tenant farmers, and landless labourers. Women, Untouchables, and tribal peoples were excluded from decision-making at both regional and national levels. The new government of India set the goals of unifying the nation, building industry, promoting economic growth, and in the course of these, reducing inequality and poverty. (This is a Ôtrickle-downÕ model of development) To what extent has it succeeded?
Trends in poverty
In India, the poverty line is defined as an income sufficient to buy food providing 2,400 calories (rural) and 2,100 calories (urban), plus 20% of that amount for other basic needs. During the 1950s - 1970s, the percentage defined as below this line fluctuated around 50% of the population. Since that time, there has been some decline but even in the early 1990s it stood at over 30% for both rural and urban populations. These rates do not apply equally to all sectors of society. Poverty is especially pronounced among the Scheduled castes and tribes, and among agricultural labourers. There is also a growing class of urban poor, economic refugees seeking an income in the city and finding themselves with no job or housing. Beggars are still very common, and provide the western visitor with their most disturbing images of India. Inequalities in India are not only very widespread: they are very visible, with beggars living on the pavements outside luxury hotels.
Aspects of the problem
Population
India is one of the most populous nations on Earth, with around 15% of the global population. Population increase since 1960 is alarming:
1961: 439 million
1971: 547 million
1981: 687 million
1991: 843 million
1999: 1,000 million
Is India simply too populous? Poverty has existed in India for generations, at times when the population was far less than today. It is clear that the problem lies not so much with the numbers of people as the distribution of wealth and access to opportunities. Nevertheless, the growth rate of IndiaÕs population is still high: 1.68%. This rate is falling as birth rates have declined more slowly than death rates. Trends of birth and death rates indicate that India is in Stage 3 of the Demographic Transition (slowing population growth).
The population of India is not expected to stabilise until the middle of this century, Various measures have been taken to limit the growth of IndiaÕs population, with the first government program being introduced in 1952. The most severe measures were implemented during the Emergency of 1975 - 1977. The Emergency was a suspension of democracy in India, prompted by the instability of the government, led by Indira Gandhi (daughter of Nehru). It followed a move by political opponents, with judicial support, to remove Mrs Gandhi from office for corruption. Gandhi responded by rejecting the judgement, and suspending both the constitution and the rule of law. A wave of persecution of political opponents followed, effectively by martial law. During the Emergency, the government launched a sterilisation program, largely aimed at the poor. Tactics ranged from bribery (e.g. the infamous "free transistor radio for sterilisation" program) to force. People were abducted from the shanties and forcibly sterilised. When the 19 month program ended with the end of the Emergency, the cause of family planning in India had been set back by years. Recent family planning initiatives in India have focused on education for women, and encouraging condom use. The latter has the additional benefit of limiting the spread of AIDs (currently an estimated 1 million cases in India). The population problem cannot be viewed in isolation, and is certainly not the primary cause of poverty. For these, we must look at the deeply ingrained inequalities in Indian society.
The Caste system
We have seen that the Caste system has been part of Hindu culture for thousands of years (Lecture 4). One of the effects of this system is to formalise discrimination against the lower castes, a problem that was (and still is, to some extent) most severe for the very lowest rung of society, the Untouchables. Much of the basis for this discrimination is connected to Hindi views of ÔuncleanÕ activities. Working with leather (tanning and shoemaking), cleaning toilets, clearing garbage, and trades such as oil pressing were regarded as ritually unclean, and would pollute those associated with them. (Similar attitudes towards death lay behind the custom of sati - or suttee - the ritual suicide of widows). Unclean trades were essential to society,
Trends in poverty
In India, the poverty line is defined as an income sufficient to buy food providing 2,400 calories (rural) and 2,100 calories (urban), plus 20% of that amount for other basic needs. During the 1950s - 1970s, the percentage defined as below this line fluctuated around 50% of the population. Since that time, there has been some decline but even in the early 1990s it stood at over 30% for both rural and urban populations. These rates do not apply equally to all sectors of society. Poverty is especially pronounced among the Scheduled castes and tribes, and among agricultural labourers. There is also a growing class of urban poor, economic refugees seeking an income in the city and finding themselves with no job or housing. Beggars are still very common, and provide the western visitor with their most disturbing images of India. Inequalities in India are not only very widespread: they are very visible, with beggars living on the pavements outside luxury hotels.
Aspects of the problem
Population
India is one of the most populous nations on Earth, with around 15% of the global population. Population increase since 1960 is alarming:
1961: 439 million
1971: 547 million
1981: 687 million
1991: 843 million
1999: 1,000 million
Is India simply too populous? Poverty has existed in India for generations, at times when the population was far less than today. It is clear that the problem lies not so much with the numbers of people as the distribution of wealth and access to opportunities. Nevertheless, the growth rate of IndiaÕs population is still high: 1.68%. This rate is falling as birth rates have declined more slowly than death rates. Trends of birth and death rates indicate that India is in Stage 3 of the Demographic Transition (slowing population growth).
The population of India is not expected to stabilise until the middle of this century, Various measures have been taken to limit the growth of IndiaÕs population, with the first government program being introduced in 1952. The most severe measures were implemented during the Emergency of 1975 - 1977. The Emergency was a suspension of democracy in India, prompted by the instability of the government, led by Indira Gandhi (daughter of Nehru). It followed a move by political opponents, with judicial support, to remove Mrs Gandhi from office for corruption. Gandhi responded by rejecting the judgement, and suspending both the constitution and the rule of law. A wave of persecution of political opponents followed, effectively by martial law. During the Emergency, the government launched a sterilisation program, largely aimed at the poor. Tactics ranged from bribery (e.g. the infamous "free transistor radio for sterilisation" program) to force. People were abducted from the shanties and forcibly sterilised. When the 19 month program ended with the end of the Emergency, the cause of family planning in India had been set back by years. Recent family planning initiatives in India have focused on education for women, and encouraging condom use. The latter has the additional benefit of limiting the spread of AIDs (currently an estimated 1 million cases in India). The population problem cannot be viewed in isolation, and is certainly not the primary cause of poverty. For these, we must look at the deeply ingrained inequalities in Indian society.
The Caste system
We have seen that the Caste system has been part of Hindu culture for thousands of years (Lecture 4). One of the effects of this system is to formalise discrimination against the lower castes, a problem that was (and still is, to some extent) most severe for the very lowest rung of society, the Untouchables. Much of the basis for this discrimination is connected to Hindi views of ÔuncleanÕ activities. Working with leather (tanning and shoemaking), cleaning toilets, clearing garbage, and trades such as oil pressing were regarded as ritually unclean, and would pollute those associated with them. (Similar attitudes towards death lay behind the custom of sati - or suttee - the ritual suicide of widows). Unclean trades were essential to society,
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