chapter 4 central Islamic land why did people leave their land ?
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After Muhammad’s death in 632, no one could legitimately claim
to be the next prophet of Islam. As a result, his political authority
was transferred to the umma with no established principle of
succession. This created opportunities for innovations but also
caused deep divisions among the Muslims. The biggest innovation
was the creation of the institution of caliphate, in which the leader
of the community (amir al-muminin) became the deputy (khalifa) of
the Prophet. The first four caliphs (632-61) justified their powers
on the basis of their close association with the Prophet and
continued his work under the general guidelines he had provided.
The twin objectives of the caliphate were to retain control over the
tribes constituting the umma and to raise resources for the state.
Following Muhammad’s death, many tribes broke away from the
Islamic state. Some even raised their own prophets to establish
communities modelled on the umma. The first caliph, Abu Bakr,
suppressed the revolts by a series of campaigns. The second caliph,
Umar, shaped the umma’s policy of expansion of power. The caliph
knew that the umma could not be maintained out of the modest
income derived from trade and taxes. Realising that rich booty
(ghanima) could be obtained from expeditionary raids, the caliph and
his military commanders mustered their tribal strength to conquer
lands belonging to the Byzantine Empire in the west and the Sasanian
empire in the east. At the height of their power, the Byzantine and
Sasanian empires ruled vast territories and commanded huge
resources to pursue their political and commercial interests in Arabia.
The Byzantine Empire promoted Christianity and the Sasanian empire
patronised Zoroastrianism, the ancient religion of Iran. On the eve
of the Arab invasions, these two empires had declined in strength
due to religious conflicts and revolts by the aristocracy
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