give a detailed account of the process of urbanisation in the bronze age civilizations
Answers
1. The first phase of urbanization is represented by the planned cities of the Bronze-age Harappan civilization from the 4th to 2nd millennium BCE. The rise of towns in the Indus zone was based on agricultural surplus, the making of bronze tools, various other crafts and widespread trade and commerce. The main features of the Harappan cities were the rise in the density of population, close integration of economic and social processes, careful planning for urban expansion, flourishing of several crafts, growth of trade and commerce, and scope for artisans and craftsmen. Some scholars have termed the rise of Harappan civilization as an urban revolution that was possibly based on a strong centralized political authority, specialized economic organization and also socio-cultural unity. Planned lay-out of streets, large-scale drainage system and strong citadels were the features indicating a strong government. These traits, in totality, helped in the first urbanization in India. Although this culture was confined to the Indus region and the major part of the subcontinent remained unaffected by this urbanism, as it left no legacy beyond the middle of the 2nd millennium BCE.
2. The second phase of urbanization spanned from around 6th century BCE to the end of 3rd century CE, in the area in and around the middle Gangetic plains. The towns in this phase were distinguished by crafts and commerce and reached their height of prosperity in the period between 2nd century BCE and 3rd century CE (Sharma, 1987, 178). This phase witnessed stages of internal growth and horizontal expansion of cities which was reflected in the distribution of two elements: multifunctional syllabic script and coinage (Chattopadhyaya 1994, 159). The increase in craft production, local and long-distance trade in costly goods and the availability of agricultural produce from the hinterland boosted urbanization in the post-Maurya times. There was also an enormous expansion of trade networks in this phase when India’s contact with Central Asia and Roman world reached its saturation (Sharma, 1987, 178). This phase also had an impact on peninsular India due to spread of trade and commercial activities in the Ganga valley. At this time, south India, too, witnessed the impact of maritime trade with the Roman world. In peninsular India, this phase represents the first phase of urbanization.
After this boom there was a decline in two phases. Several causes are given for the first phase of urban decay that happened between the second half of 3rd century and 4th century CE. Firstly, the decline of many urban centres coincided with the fall of two great kingdoms and the end of Indo-Roman trade. Secondly, the long-distance trade between the Romans, Chinese, Parthians, Kusanas and Satavahanas declined during the late 3rd century and 4th century CE. Archeological excavations of several sites show evidence of what Sharma termed as ‘urban decay’. This decline in trade led to a loss of income for the state, merchants, artisans and others. The ensuing social crisis during 3rd and 4th centuries CE, described as the ‘Kali Age’ in the Puranas, was manifest in the stoppage of the flow of taxes from the countryside and internal revolts in towns. Sharma points out that the second phase of urban decay came after the 6th century CE and coincided with the decline of the Gupta empire. During this period, many important towns of the middle Gangetic plains declined, a fact also corroborated by the account of Husan Tsang. Further, the Buddhist texts also give less attention to traders and craftsmen, confirming the phenomenon of de-urbanization. The second phase of urban decay was also linked with the decline of long-distance trade between India and the Byzantine empire on the one hand and South-East Asia on the other.
3. The third phase of urbanization was represented by the rise of towns and cities in the early medieval period, i.e., from the 8th/9th to 12th centuries CE. This period is discussed in detail in the following section.