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a) The transformation of a string of characters into a usually shorter fixed-length value or key that represents the original string.
b) Hierarchical Model, Network Model, Relational model.
c) A candidate key is a column, or set of columns, in a table that can uniquely identify any database record without referring to any other
d) Computer programmers do exactly the same thing. When they are writing a program they often break the code into small chunks.
They call this approach 'decomposition' because you are ‘decomposing’ or breaking down a large problem into smaller problems.
Decomposition saves a lot of time: the code for a complex program could run to many lines of code. If a mistake was made it would take a very long time to find.
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