How immunisation was carried out of in earlier centuries??¿
Answers
Answer:
The practice of immunisation dates back hundreds of years. Buddhist monks drank snake venom to confer immunity to snake bite and variolation (smearing of a skin tear with cowpox to confer immunity to smallpox) was practiced in 17th century China. Edward Jenner is considered the founder of vaccinology in the West in 1796, after he inoculated a 13 year-old-boy with vaccinia virus (cowpox), and demonstrated immunity to smallpox. In 1798, the first smallpox vaccine was developed. Over the 18th and 19th centuries, systematic implementation of mass smallpox immunisation culminated in its global eradication in 1979.
Answer:
Poland has just had the best 25 years in its history. During that time Poland has become Europe’s champion in economic growth, leaving behind all other transition countries and all of Western Europe, World Bank representatives write.
Moreover, in the last 20 years Poland was the fastest developing economy in the world in the group of countries with similar level of development.
This year, the level of income in Poland will exceed USD 20 000 (purchasing power parity basis), representing more than 65 percent of income level in the eurozone. In absolute as well as in relative terms, this will be the highest level of income after year 1500. Poland’s new golden age will have settled in.
No time for complacency
Yet, past success is no guarantee of success in the future. Poland cannot rest on its laurels. Considering significant gap in productivity (GDP per hour worked in Poland is less than half of productivity in Germany), private sector productivity growth will continue to be driven in the near future by absorption of technologies and innovations that are new only at the scale of a company or country. The point is that this will not help maintain, let alone accelerate, economic growth in the long run when Poland’s productivity levels converge with Western Europe countries and simple technology imitation will not be sufficient any more.
We need faster growth of investments in R&D and innovations. Economy might stagnate if Poland doesn’t start shifting from imitating others to generating new ideas, from quantity to quality, from potato chips to microchips.
Poland has not yet invested enough in R&D and innovation. And the impact of that spending seems to be less meaningful than similar spending by its Central European peers. In 2013, R&D spending amounted to only 0.9 percent of Poland’s GDP, at the tail end of European Union rankings. Private spending on R&D was particularly low and represented just one third of total R&D spending.
To change that, an overhaul of public support system for innovations is needed, involving reorientation towards global best practice and greater role of the private sector. Keeping the status quo is not good enough by any measure.
Poland simply can’t afford to increase public spending on R&D while continuing to achieve negligible results. Efficient investment of more than 10 billion euros from the EU until 2020 will be instrumental in pushing the country toward knowledge creation, technology improvements and disruptive innovations.
What does it take, then, to promote a global champion ‘made in Poland’? Innovations must be moved from the level and quality of Polish football league to that of the Champion’s League. How can Polish authorities help make that happen?|
We suggest five priorities for innovation policy.
First, focus on the outcomes, not the outlays.
In place of simple allocation of EU funds, Poland should now focus on return on investment and tangible business results. In the last EU perspective of such magnitude we should not ask how much money was spent, but what outcomes were achieved.
We must support firms and researchers in their journey on uncharted waters; identify entrepreneurs for whom innovation is the key to competitiveness, and provide them with services of world class quality. Further, we must encourage traditional companies spoilt with low cost of labor, high quality of human capital, huge domestic market and weak zloty to start building their R&D competence and to innovate.
Second, business takes the lead.