how is colour used by various living beings
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Phylogenetic and paleontological evidence indicates that in the animal kingdom the ability to perceive colors evolved independently several times over the course of millennia. This implies a high evolutionary neural investment and suggests that color vision provides some fundamental biological benefits. What are these benefits? Why are some animals so colorful? What are the adaptive and perceptual meanings of polychromatism? We suggest that in addition to the discrimination of light and surface chromaticity, sensitivity to color contributes to the whole, the parts and the fragments of perceptual organization. New versions of neon color spreading and the watercolor illusion indicate that the visual purpose of color in humans is threefold: to inter-relate each chromatic component of an object, thus favoring the emergence of the whole; to support a part–whole organization in which components reciprocally enhance each other by amodal completion; and, paradoxically, to reveal fragments and hide the whole—that is, there is a chromatic parceling-out process of separation, division, and fragmentation of the whole. The evolution of these contributions of color to organization needs to be established, but traces of it can be found in Harlequin camouflage by animals and in the coloration of flowers.
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The plant and animal kingdoms abound with bright colors, from the lush green of photosynthesizing plants to the bold black and orange stripes of tigers. Color plays a multitude of roles in the natural world, used to entice, to camouflage, or to warn other creatures. Colors signal harvest time, breeding conditions, and the change of seasons, from the first greens of spring to the brilliant reds and browns of the fall.
Pigments are chemical compounds responsible for color in a range of living substances and in the inorganic world. Pigments absorb some of the light they receive, and so reflect only certain wavelengths of visible light. This makes them appear "colorful.” Cave paintings by early man show the early use of pigments, in a limited range from straw color to reddish brown and black. These colors occurred naturally in charcoals, and in mineral oxides such as chalk and ochre. The WebExhibit on Pigments has more information on these early painting palettes. Many early artists used natural pigments, but nowadays they have been replaced by cheaper and less toxic synthetic pigments
Plant pigments exist in a wide variety of forms, some with highly complex and large structures. Over 600 naturally occurring carotenoid structures have been identified, as well as over 7,000 flavonoids, including over 500 anthocyanins. This is discussed in more detail on the Flowers section. Biological pigments such as chlorophyll are colored organic molecules which owe their color to the presence of unsaturated bonds
The eye-catching colors of many birds aren’t produced by the birds themselves, but by what they eat. Research into the varied plumage of a House Finch has shown that its colors are related to the bird’s diet and the pigments it eats. The carotenoid pigments of the tasty berries that the red Cardinal enjoys in the summer are laid down in the feather follicles. In the same way, yellow, red, and orange pigments can be absorbed from an array of seeds. The wide variety of summer fruits and seeds that form the bird’s diet as it prepares for the lean winter months also provides the pigments in its vibrant plumage. Another factor is the ability of the bird to metabolize carotenoid pigments to create plumage pigmentation of a different color than the ingested pigment. So, one type of seed, eaten by a House Finch, might make it appear yellow, while the same seed eaten by a Cardinal might make it appear pink, as the Cardinal converts the pigment metabolically to a red pigment. If you kept a colorful wild bird like a Cardinal or House Finch in captivity and fed it just one type of seed, its feathers would become progressively duller with each molt.
lamingos eat planktonic animals such as brine shrimp. Both the flamingo and the shrimp are unable to make their own carotenoids. Microscopic algae manufacture red and yellow pigments, and form the primary diet of the tiny shrimp. When the flamingo dines on shrimp, the carotenoids move another step through the food chain to produce the vivid pink and oranges seen in the feathers. Most zoos supplement the diet of their flamingos with plant pigment extracts: gray flamingos would lack the visual appeal of the vivid colors we expect from these birds. Similarly, farmed salmon are fed a supplement to make them a more appetizing pink.
Invertebrates, such as insects or mollusks, often display green colors because of porphyrin pigments sometimes absorbed through their diet.
Unlike plants, most animals are unable to make green and blue pigments. Most of their green and blue colors are created through structural effects. A bluebird manufactures melanin and would look almost black, but tiny air sacs in the feathers scatter light and make it appear blue, in a similar way to the sky, which appears blue as gas molecules in the atmosphere scatter light. Peacocks are colored through a combination of pigments, and the way light interferes when reflected off the feathers to create iridescence. Examples of colors arising from iridescent and diffractive structures can be found in peacock feathers, [15B.html|]pearls, and mother of pearl. Another brilliant example of structural color in the animal kingdom is the brilliant blue of the Morpho butterfly. The color of their wings is the result of their microstructure, although many butterflies have cells that contain pigment as well. Some beetles with a metallic green sheen show similarly vibrant colors.
Structural color is the result of selective reflection or iridescence, usually because of multilayer structures. Pigment color differs from structural color in that it is the same for all viewing angles. Some colors are a combination of pigment, structural color, and diet. Most green colors in fish, reptiles, amphibians, and birds are created by a reflection of blue light coming through an over-layer of yellow pigment.
Pigments are chemical compounds responsible for color in a range of living substances and in the inorganic world. Pigments absorb some of the light they receive, and so reflect only certain wavelengths of visible light. This makes them appear "colorful.” Cave paintings by early man show the early use of pigments, in a limited range from straw color to reddish brown and black. These colors occurred naturally in charcoals, and in mineral oxides such as chalk and ochre. The WebExhibit on Pigments has more information on these early painting palettes. Many early artists used natural pigments, but nowadays they have been replaced by cheaper and less toxic synthetic pigments
Plant pigments exist in a wide variety of forms, some with highly complex and large structures. Over 600 naturally occurring carotenoid structures have been identified, as well as over 7,000 flavonoids, including over 500 anthocyanins. This is discussed in more detail on the Flowers section. Biological pigments such as chlorophyll are colored organic molecules which owe their color to the presence of unsaturated bonds
The eye-catching colors of many birds aren’t produced by the birds themselves, but by what they eat. Research into the varied plumage of a House Finch has shown that its colors are related to the bird’s diet and the pigments it eats. The carotenoid pigments of the tasty berries that the red Cardinal enjoys in the summer are laid down in the feather follicles. In the same way, yellow, red, and orange pigments can be absorbed from an array of seeds. The wide variety of summer fruits and seeds that form the bird’s diet as it prepares for the lean winter months also provides the pigments in its vibrant plumage. Another factor is the ability of the bird to metabolize carotenoid pigments to create plumage pigmentation of a different color than the ingested pigment. So, one type of seed, eaten by a House Finch, might make it appear yellow, while the same seed eaten by a Cardinal might make it appear pink, as the Cardinal converts the pigment metabolically to a red pigment. If you kept a colorful wild bird like a Cardinal or House Finch in captivity and fed it just one type of seed, its feathers would become progressively duller with each molt.
lamingos eat planktonic animals such as brine shrimp. Both the flamingo and the shrimp are unable to make their own carotenoids. Microscopic algae manufacture red and yellow pigments, and form the primary diet of the tiny shrimp. When the flamingo dines on shrimp, the carotenoids move another step through the food chain to produce the vivid pink and oranges seen in the feathers. Most zoos supplement the diet of their flamingos with plant pigment extracts: gray flamingos would lack the visual appeal of the vivid colors we expect from these birds. Similarly, farmed salmon are fed a supplement to make them a more appetizing pink.
Invertebrates, such as insects or mollusks, often display green colors because of porphyrin pigments sometimes absorbed through their diet.
Unlike plants, most animals are unable to make green and blue pigments. Most of their green and blue colors are created through structural effects. A bluebird manufactures melanin and would look almost black, but tiny air sacs in the feathers scatter light and make it appear blue, in a similar way to the sky, which appears blue as gas molecules in the atmosphere scatter light. Peacocks are colored through a combination of pigments, and the way light interferes when reflected off the feathers to create iridescence. Examples of colors arising from iridescent and diffractive structures can be found in peacock feathers, [15B.html|]pearls, and mother of pearl. Another brilliant example of structural color in the animal kingdom is the brilliant blue of the Morpho butterfly. The color of their wings is the result of their microstructure, although many butterflies have cells that contain pigment as well. Some beetles with a metallic green sheen show similarly vibrant colors.
Structural color is the result of selective reflection or iridescence, usually because of multilayer structures. Pigment color differs from structural color in that it is the same for all viewing angles. Some colors are a combination of pigment, structural color, and diet. Most green colors in fish, reptiles, amphibians, and birds are created by a reflection of blue light coming through an over-layer of yellow pigment.
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