Question

Indian Philosophy is characterized by predominantly spiritual outlook. Illustrate with example.​

Answer 1

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Abstract:-

Growing understanding of spirituality at the end of life demands more theoretical research on the subject. Empirical studies have highlighted the need for exploring philosophical and cultural concepts to facilitate a fuller understanding of spirituality at the end of life. This paper explores Indian philosophy to inform the conceptualisation of spirituality at the end of life in the Indian context. Three key themes from discourses on spirituality at the end of life have been analysed: the concept of the human person, the purpose of life and the meaning of death. The human person is from and of the Divine, eternal and is capable of cognition and experience. The purpose of human life is to unite with the ultimate Reality, the Divine, by living life righteously according to prescribed ways and by achieving detachment from the illusion of the world. Death is part of life and not that which ends it. The moment of death is an opportunity for the ultimate transformation, Moksha. Analysing these philosophical foundations can provide the contextual frame for understanding the spiritual needs of palliative care patients and their families and the possibility of developing culturally relevant approaches to providing spiritual care at the end of life.

Answer 2

Indian philosophy refers to philosophical traditions of the Indian subcontinent. A traditional classification divides āstika (orthodox) and nāstika (heterodox) schools of philosophy, depending on one of three alternate criteria: whether it believes the Vedas as a valid source of knowledge; whether the school believes in the premises of Brahman and Atman; and whether the school believes in afterlife and Devas.

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Indian philosophies share many concepts such as dharma, karma, samsara, reincarnation, dukkha, renunciation, meditation, with almost all of them focussing on the ultimate goal of liberation of the individual through diverse range of spiritual practices (moksha, nirvana). They differ in their assumptions about the nature of existence as well as the specifics of the path to the ultimate liberation, resulting in numerous schools that disagreed with each other. Their ancient doctrines span the diverse range of philosophies found in other ancient cultures.


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Yoga, a school similar to Sāṃkhya (or perhaps even a branch of it) which accepts a personal god and focuses on yogic practice.
Nyāya, a philosophy which focuses on logic and epistemology. It accepts six kinds of pramanas (epistemic warrants): (1) perception, (2) inference, (3) comparison and analogy, (4) postulation, derivation from circumstances, (5) non-perception, negative/cognitive proof and (6) word, testimony of past or present reliable experts. Nyāya defends a form of direct realism and a theory of substances (dravya).
Vaiśeṣika, closely related to the Nyāya school, this tradition focused on the metaphysics of substance, and on defending a theory of atoms. Unlike Nyāya, they only accept two pramanas: perception and inference.
Pūrva-Mīmāṃsā, a school which focuses on exegesis of the Vedas, philology and the interpretation of Vedic ritual.
Vedānta (also called Uttara Mīmāṃsā), focuses on interpreting the philosophy of the Upanishads, particularly the metaphysical ideas relating to Atman and Brahman. Vedānta
imes these groups are often coupled into three groups for both historical and conceptual reasons: Nyāya-Vaiśeṣika, Sāṃkhya-Yoga, and Mīmāṃsā-Vedānta.

Each tradition included different currents and sub-schools, for example, Vedānta was divided among the sub-schools of Advaita (non-dualism), Visishtadvaita (qualified non-dualism), Dvaita (dualism), Dvaitadvaita (dualistic non-dualism), Suddhadvaita, and Achintya Bheda Abheda (inconceivable oneness and difference).
Pasupata, school of Shaivism by Nakulisa
Saiva, the theistic Sankhya school
Pratyabhijña, the recognitive school
Raseśvara, the mercurial school
Pāṇini Darśana, the grammarian school (which clarifies the theory of Sphoṭa)
The systems mentioned here are not the only orthodox systems, they are the chief ones, and there are other orthodox schools. These systems, accept the authority of Vedas and are regarded as orthodox (astika) schools of Hindu philosophy; besides these, schools that do not accept the authority of the Vedas are heterodox (nastika) systems such as Buddhism, Jainism, Ajivika and Charvaka. This orthodox-heterodox terminology is a construct of Western languages, and lacks scholarly roots in Sanskrit. According to Andrew Nicholson, there have been various heresiological translations of Āstika and Nāstika in 20th century literature on Indian philosophies, but quite many are unsophisticated and flawed.
Charvaka is a materialistic and atheistic school of thought and, is noteworthy as evidence of a materialistic movement within
Hinduism.





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