Investigate how legislation can contribute to the success and failure of comapies
Answers
Answer:
2.L
anguages of Mass Media
: The nation has newspapers and/or periodicals in 87
languages with varying degrees of regularity and readership. Radio programs are still
mostly under the government domination (with the exception of a few recent FM
stations) and they beam programs in 24 languages and 146 “dialects” (so called –
not on the basis of any sound historical linguistic principles, but only because of the
fact they are mostly oral modes of expression), whereas films are made in 15
languages.
3.Written Languages
: In a recent survey conducted by Padmanabha, Mahapatra,
Verma and McConnel (1989), we are told that out of the 96 languages surveyed of
the 114 languages listed in Census 1981, 50 were found to have written modes of
expression. Although by the end of the 19th century many major Indian languages
were put to some kind of writing, the writing systems did not spread across the
whole society. In the initial period, these included writings by both scholars and nonnative missionaries, but without native participation, every such written language
lapsed back to an unwritten state.
4.L
ink Languages and Speech Variation
: Every language area consists of at least
three inter-languages. Widely accepted and understood languages have variants.
Hindi alone has 48, which has resulted in a functional hierarchy of Indian languages,
with Hindi and English occupying the top spot, followed by the 16 other official
languages of the states and territories plus four others (that include Dogri, Maithili,
and Rajasthani), which are recognised as vehicles of significant literature.
5.Numerous ‘Other tongues
’: There are 23 “other” languages with a million plus
speakers (including Awadhi, Bagri, Bhili, Bhojpuri, Chattisgarhi, Deccani, Kangri,
Garhwali, Haryanvi, Ho, Kanauji, Khandeshi, Kumaoni, Kurux, Lamani, Magahi,
Malvi, Marwari, Meitei, Mundari, Nimadi, Sadari and Tulu), followed by hundreds of
still other speech varieties at the bottom of the ladder.
6.S
peech Variation in early surveys
: The picture of changing space of Indian
languages becomes clearer if one looks into older demographic records, like the
census returns of Bombay (1864), Madras Presidency (1871) and Bengal (1872),
and then systematically compares information on linguistic composition of the
country as collected through the succeeding decennial censuses of the country from
1891 to 2001. Grierson’s LSI (The Linguistic Survey of India), conducted between
1886 and 1927, was another source of information of the linguistic composition of
the region. It had a total number of 179 languages and 544 dialects (Grierson,
1927), although these figures are of limited consequence today because he had to
include many regions that are no longer part of the country, and there are many
other parts of the country that did not receive adequate coverage at the time.
7.P
icture after Independence: 1961 and 1971 Attempts
: After Independence, an
attempt was made in the 1961 census to present the mother tongue data in the
same classification scheme as that of Grierson. A list of 193 classified languages
(excluding foreign and unclassified tongues) was identified out of a total of 1,652
mother tongue labels enumerated. The 1971 census, which defined ‘language’ in
terms of broad demo- and geolinguistic units, showed a list of 105 languages each
with a speaker strength of 10,000 and above on the all India level.
8.Rationalisation of Mother Tongue Figures
: Until the census of India 1881 came out,
because innumerable mother tongue labels were floated during each census taken at
ten year intervals, there was great difficulty in arriving at a rationalised figure. For
example, the 1961 and 1971 census figures of raw labels numbered around 3,000,
which jumped in 1981 to around 7,000 and touched an all-time high in 1991, when
more than 10,000 were returned. The task of presenting a meaningful linguistic
picture of the entire country required that the census produce a list of rationalised
mother tongues. This was how the 1961 figure as 1,652 was announced, whereas in
1991 it was 1,576. Finally, in the Census of India, 1991, the total number of
languages arrived at was 114