What is losses of chloride containing drinking water?
Answers
Answer:
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Explanation:
Identity
Chlorides are widely distributed in nature as salts of sodium (NaCl), potassium (KCl), and
calcium (CaCl2).
Physicochemical properties (1)
Salt Solubility in cold
water
(g/litre)
Solubility in hot
water
(g/litre)
Sodium chloride 357 391
Potassium chloride 344 567
Calcium chloride 745 1590
Organoleptic properties
The taste threshold of the chloride anion in water is dependent on the associated cation. Taste
thresholds for sodium chloride and calcium chloride in water are in the range 200–300
mg/litre (2). The taste of coffee is affected if it is made with water containing a chloride
concentration of 400 mg/litre as sodium chloride or 530 mg/litre as calcium chloride (3).
Major uses
Sodium chloride is widely used in the production of industrial chemicals such as caustic soda,
chlorine, sodium chlorite, and sodium hypochlorite. Sodium chloride, calcium chloride, and
magnesium chloride are extensively used in snow and ice control. Potassium chloride is used
in the production of fertilizers (4).
Environmental fate
Chlorides are leached from various rocks into soil and water by weathering. The chloride ion
is highly mobile and is transported to closed basins or oceans.
ANALYTICAL METHODS
A number of suitable analytical techniques are available for chloride in water, including silver
nitrate titration with chromate indicator (5), mercury(II) nitrate titration with
diphenylcarbazone indicator, potentiometric titration with silver nitrate, automated iron(III)
mercury(II) thiocyanate colorimetry, chloride ion-selective electrode, silver colorimetry, and
ion chromatography. Limits of detection range from 50 g/litre for colorimetry to 5 mg/litre
for titration (6).
ENVIRONMENTAL LEVELS AND HUMAN EXPOSURE
Air
Exposure to chloride in air has been reported to be negligible (4).
Water
Chloride in surface and groundwater from both natural and anthropogenic sources, such as
run-off containing road de-icing salts, the use of inorganic fertilizers, landfill leachates, septic
tank effluents, animal feeds, industrial effluents, irrigation drainage, and seawater intrusion in
coastal areas (4).
The mean chloride concentration in several rivers in the United Kingdom was in the range
11–42 mg/litre during 1974–81 (7). Evidence of a general increase in chloride concentrations
in groundwater and drinking-water has been found (8), but exceptions have also been reported
(9). In the USA, aquifers prone to seawater intrusion have been found to contain chloride at
concentrations ranging from 5 to 460 mg/litre (10), whereas contaminated wells in the
Philippines have been reported to have an average chloride concentration of 141 mg/litre (11).
Chloride levels in unpolluted waters are often below 10 mg/litre and sometimes below 1
mg/litre (4).
Chloride in water may be considerably increased by treatment processes in which chlorine or
chloride is used. For example, treatment with 40 g of chlorine per m3 and 0.6 mol of iron
chloride per litre, required for the purification of groundwater containing large amounts of
iron(II), or surface water polluted with colloids, has been reported to result in chloride
concentrations of 40 and 63 mg/litre, respectively, in the finished water (8).
Food
Chloride occurs naturally in foodstuffs at levels normally less than 0.36 mg/g. An average
intake of 100 mg/day has been reported when a salt-free diet is consumed. However, the
addition of salt during processing, cooking, or eating can markedly increase the chloride level
in food, resulting in an average dietary intake of 6 g/day, which may rise to 12 g/day in some
cases (4).
Estimated total exposure and relative contribution of drinking-water
If a daily water consumption of 2 litres and an average chloride level in drinking-water of 10
mg/litre are assumed, the average daily intake of chloride from drinking-water would be
approximately 20 mg per person (4), but a figure of approximately 100 mg/day has also been
suggested (8). Based on these estimates and the average dietary (not salt
free) intake of 6 g/day, drinking water intake accounts for about 0.33–1.6% of the total intake.