what type of changes takes place during differentiation functional or structural
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Cell Differentiation and Tissue
Within multicellular organisms, tissues are organized communities of cells that work together to carry out a specific function. The exact role of a tissue in an organism depends on what types of cells it contains. For example, the endothelial tissue that lines the human gastrointestinal tract consists of several cell types. Some of these cells absorb nutrients from the digestive contents, whereas others (called goblet cells) secrete a lubricating mucus that helps the contents travel smoothly.
However, the multiple cell types within a tissue don't just have different functions. They also have different transcriptional programs and may well divide at different rates. Proper regulation of these rates is essential to tissue maintenance and repair. The spatial organization of the cells that form a tissue is also central to the tissue's function and survival. This organization depends in part on polarity, or the orientation of particular cells in their place. Of course, external signals from neighboring cells or from the extracellular matrix are also important influences on the arrangement of cells in a tissue.
What Is the Source of New Cells for Tissues?
Without cell division, long-term tissue survival would be impossible. Inside every tissue, cells are constantly replenishing themselves through the process of division, although the rate of turnover may vary widely between different cell types in the same tissue. For example, in adult mammal brains, neurons rarely divide. However, glial cells in the brain continue to divide throughout a mammal's adult life. Mammalian epithelial cells also turn over regularly, typically every few days.
Neurons are not the only cells that lose their ability to divide as they mature. In fact, many differentiated cells lose this ability. To help counteract this loss, tissues maintain stem cells to serve as a reservoir of undifferentiated cells. Stem cells typically have the capacity to mature into many different cell types. Transcription factors — proteins that regulate which genes are transcribed in a cell — appear to be essential to determining the pathway particular stem cells take as they differentiate. For example, both intestinal absorptive cells and goblet cells arise from the same stem cell population, but divergent transcriptional programs cause them to mature into dramatically different cells (Figure 1).
Whenever stem cells are called upon to generate a particular type of cell, they undergo an asymmetric cell division. With asymmetric division, each of the two resulting daughter cells has its own unique life course. In this case, one of the daughter cells has a finite capacity for cell division and begins to differentiate, whereas the other daughter cell remains a stem cell with unlimited proliferative ability.
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