What was the social condition of Europe in the mid 18th century
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Answer:
In Europe, the eighteenth century was a period of intellectual, social, and political ferment. This time is often referred to as the Age of Enlightenment, for it was in the 18th century that the ideas of the previous 100 years were implemented on a broad scale. In academia, the relatively-new fields of calculus and mechanics began to influence thinking about the workings of the universe. Politically, the ideas of John Locke, Thomas Hobbes, and others would give rise to a notion of democracy that would ultimately supplant the monarchical power structure on the European continent. By the end of the century, Adam Smith's economic ideas would provide the intellectual basis for the development of modern capitalism.
For the first time, science became a central piece of public discourse. Until then, much of what is now considered scientific inquiry was pursued by a relatively small group of academics whose writings did not enjoy widespread circulation. Beginning in the late 17th century, there was a twofold development in academia that would bring about a rapid democratization of scientific knowledge. The first was the foundation of the Paris Academy and the Royal Society of London, two institutions whose primary purpose was to do scientific research and report their conclusions to the public.
Cover of the Acta
Eruditorum, 1726
Over the succeeding decades, several other institutions would be founded on the model of these two, including the Berlin Academy, the St. Petersburg Academy, the Turin Society, and many others. Frequently, these academies operated under the patronage of a particular monarch, and as such were subject to the changing desires of those individuals. While this made life in academia somewhat erratic, there was a great deal more continuity and freedom than had existed previously.
The second major development in academic life was the rise of scientific journals. These publications were often produced by the academies themselves (e.g., London's Philosophical Transactions and Paris's Mémoires), though a fair number were produced independently (e.g., the Acta Eruditorum and Crelle's Journal). These new journals circulated to a wide audience that included many outside the scientific community. In one sense, these are among the first "popular science" magazines, in that scientific results were reported to an audience of non-specialists. As such, the 18th century was a time when scientific tracts could become bestsellers. One of Euler's books, Lettres à une princesse d'Allemagne (Letters to a German Princess), went through thirty-eight printings in nine different languages, and remained in print for a century.
By the middle of the 18th century, the scientific revolution was in full swing; decades of research had been compiled, exchanged, corroborated, and communicated to the public. As the most prolific mathematician and scientist of the time, Leonhard Euler made significant contributions to many different fields, including optics, mechanics, artillery, naval science, planetary motion, and several branches of calculus. More recently, the 20th century science historian Clifford Truesdell has calculated that of all the mathematical and scientific work published during the whole of the 18th century, a full 25% was written by Euler.
Answer:
Pop culture seems to change yearly. One year Celine Dion and gel pens are 'in' and the next year they are forgotten, replaced by Miley Cyrus and Uggs. What is stylish and what is not each year is often determined by, and reflective of, our society. Even though it seems like a completely different world, what was popular in the 18th century was also reflective of the changes that were taking place in 18th-century society. In this lesson, we will explore that society and its changing world, and what those with the time to spend on popular culture enjoyed.
Societal Makeup
The makeup of society was changing in the 18th century, but there was still opposition from the rigidly hierarchical established powers of the day. Indeed, despite some changes, at 1800, the nobility and traditional landed aristocracy still held the political power in most of Western Europe. In addition to largely being the sole holders of political power, the nobility of the 18th century held the vast majority of the region's wealth. Most of this wealth (and indeed, most of its attendant prestige) derived from the ownership of land.
To be a true member of the European nobility at this point, one must not have to work for a living, but must be able to live solely off the rents and profits from property, preferably land which the same family had owned for generations. In fact, some newer members of the noble classes went to great lengths to disguise newly bought land as land their grandparents and great-grandparents had owned. It should be noted that in most countries, the clergy were also considered part of the aristocratic class, and many of the clergy were second and third sons of lesser nobles, and hence unable to inherit their fathers' lands and estates.
The growth of the group the next rung down the social ladder during the 18th century is one of the most contentious subjects in European history. The urban working class (which Marxist historians term the 'bourgeoisie') had always existed in some form, but their growth and the growth of their respective industries had largely been hampered by long production times or the restrictive trade guilds of the cities and towns in which they often worked. The development of cottage industries (think very small-scale, in-home, efficient production of goods), and later, the advent of the Industrial Revolution changed the conditions dramatically for urban craftsmen, tradesmen, and merchants during the 18th century.