Which is the effective way to organise and summarize data for viewing or printing?
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Number crunching is Excel's forte, so when you're ready to move beyond the basic summarizing aggregates, such as SUM() and AVERAGE(), you'll find a lot of power and flexibility at your disposal. These summarizing tips will help you put Excel's summarizing features and functions to work for you.
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All observations of subjects in a study are evaluated on a scale of measurement that determines how the observations should be summarized, displayed, and analyzed.Nominal scales are used to categorize discrete characteristics.Ordinal scales categorize characteristics that have an inherent order.Numerical scales measure the amount or quantity of something.Means measure the middle of the distribution of a numerical characteristic.Medians measure the middle of the distribution of an ordinal characteristic or a numerical characteristic that is skewed.The standard deviation is a measure of the spread of observations around the mean and is used in many statistical procedures.The coefficient of variation is a measure of relative spread that permits the comparison of observations measured on different scales.Percentiles are useful to compare an individual observation with a norm.Stem-and-leaf plots are a combination offrequency tables and histograms that are useful in exploring the distribution of a set of observations.Frequency tables show the number of observations having a specific characteristic.Histograms, box plots, and frequency polygons display distributions of numerical observations.Proportions and percentages are used to summarize nominal and ordinal data.Rates describe the number of events that occur in a given period.Prevalence and incidence are two important measures of morbidity.Rates must be adjusted when populations being compared differ in an important confounding factor.The relationship between two numerical characteristics is described by the correlation.The relationship between two nominal characteristics is described by the risk ratio,odds ratio, and event rates.Number needed to treat is a useful indication of the effectiveness of a given therapy or procedure.Scatterplots illustrate the relationship between two numerical characteristics.Poorly designed graphs and tables mislead in the information they provide.Computer programs are essential in today’s research environment, and skills to use and interpret them can be very useful.
Presenting Problem 1
Pulmonary embolism (PE) is a leading cause of morbidity and mortality. Clinical features are nonspecific and a certain diagnosis is often difficult to make. Attempts to simplify and improve the diagnostic process in evaluating patients for possible PE have been made by the introduction of two components: determination of pretest probability and d-dimer testing. Pretest probability is determined by developing explicit criteria for determining the clinical probability of PE. d-dimer assays measure the formation of d-dimer when cross-linked fibrin in thrombi is broken down by plasmin.Elevated levels of d-dimer can be used to detect deep venous thrombosis (DVT) and PE. Some d-dimer tests are very sensitive for DVT and a normal result can be used to exclude venous thromboembolism.
Kline and colleagues (2002) wished to develop a set of clinical criteria that would define a subgroup of patients with a pretest probability of PE of greater than 40% (high-risk group). These patients would be at too great a risk of experiencing a PE to have the diagnosis excluded on the basis of d...
hope it helps u dear. . .
Presenting Problem 1
Pulmonary embolism (PE) is a leading cause of morbidity and mortality. Clinical features are nonspecific and a certain diagnosis is often difficult to make. Attempts to simplify and improve the diagnostic process in evaluating patients for possible PE have been made by the introduction of two components: determination of pretest probability and d-dimer testing. Pretest probability is determined by developing explicit criteria for determining the clinical probability of PE. d-dimer assays measure the formation of d-dimer when cross-linked fibrin in thrombi is broken down by plasmin.Elevated levels of d-dimer can be used to detect deep venous thrombosis (DVT) and PE. Some d-dimer tests are very sensitive for DVT and a normal result can be used to exclude venous thromboembolism.
Kline and colleagues (2002) wished to develop a set of clinical criteria that would define a subgroup of patients with a pretest probability of PE of greater than 40% (high-risk group). These patients would be at too great a risk of experiencing a PE to have the diagnosis excluded on the basis of d...
hope it helps u dear. . .
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