write a short not on followin: (a)fragmentation (b)regeneration pls help anyone
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Answer:
a)Fragmentation in multicellular organisms is a form of asexual reproduction in which an organism is split into fragments. Each of these fragments develop into matured organism, full grown individuals that are genetically and morphologically identical to their parents. Example :-SPIROGYRA
The splitting may or may not be intentional – it may or may not occur due to man-made or natural damage by the environment or predators. This kind of organism may develop specific organs or zones that may be shed or easily broken off. If the splitting occurs without the prior preparation of the organism, both fragments must be able to regenerate the complete organism for it to function as reproduction.
Fragmentation, also known as splitting and a method of reproduction is seen in many organisms such as in bacteria: filamentous cyanobacteria, in fungi like molds, lichens, many animals such as sponges, acoel flatworms, some annelid worms and sea stars.fragmentation is different from budding and binary fission
b)In biology, regeneration is the process of renewal, restoration, and tissue growth that makes genomes, cells, organisms, and ecosystems resilient to natural fluctuations or events that cause disturbance or damage.[1] Every species is capable of regeneration, from bacteria to humans.[2][3] Regeneration can either be complete[4] where the new tissue is the same as the lost tissue,[4] or incomplete[5] where after the necrotic tissue comes fibrosis.[5]
At its most elementary level, regeneration is mediated by the molecular processes of gene regulation and involves the cellular processes of cell proliferation, morphogenesis and cell differentiation.[6][7] Regeneration in biology, however, mainly refers to the morphogenic processes that characterize the phenotypic plasticity of traits allowing multi-cellular organisms to repair and maintain the integrity of their physiological and morphological states. Above the genetic level, regeneration is fundamentally regulated by asexual cellular processes.[8] Regeneration is different from reproduction. For example, hydra perform regeneration but reproduce by the method of budding.
The hydra and the planarian flatworm have long served as model organisms for their highly adaptive regenerative capabilities.[9] Once wounded, their cells become activated and restore the organs back to their pre-existing state.[10] The Caudata ("urodeles"; salamanders and newts), an order of tailed amphibians, is possibly the most adept vertebrate group at regeneration, given their capability of regenerating limbs, tails, jaws, eyes and a variety of internal structures.[2] The regeneration of organs is a common and widespread adaptive capability among metazoan creatures.[9] In a related context, some animals are able to reproduce asexually through fragmentation, budding, or fission.[8] A planarian parent, for example, will constrict, split in the middle, and each half generates a new end to form two clones of the original.[11]
Echinoderms (such as the sea star), crayfish, many reptiles, and amphibians exhibit remarkable examples of tissue regeneration. The case of autotomy, for example, serves as a defensive function as the animal detaches a limb or tail to avoid capture. After the limb or tail has been autotomized, cells move into action and the tissues will regenerate.[12][13][14] In some cases a shed limb can itself regenerate a new individual.[15] Limited regeneration of limbs occurs in most fishes and salamanders, and tail regeneration takes place in larval frogs and toads (but not adults). The whole limb of a salamander or a triton will grow again and again after amputation. In reptiles, chelonians, crocodilians and snakes are unable to regenerate lost parts, but many (not all) kinds of lizards, geckos and iguanas possess regeneration capacity in a high degree. Usually, it involves dropping a section of their tail and regenerating it as part of a defense mechanism. While escaping a predator, if the predator catches the tail, it will disconnect.[16]
A related biological process that often involves limb regeneration is known as Autotomy
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