Write a short note on landmark in the history of computing by giving the following year 1642, 1822,1945,1991
Answers
Answer:The Arithmetic MachineThe Arithmetic Machine, or Pascaline, a French monetary (nondecimal) calculator designed by Blaise Pascal c. 1642. Numbers could be added by turning the wheels (located along the bottom of the machine) clockwise and subtracted by turning the wheels counterclockwise. Each digit in the answer was displayed in a separate window, visible at the top of the photograph.
In 1671 the German mathematician-philosopher Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz designed a calculating machine called the Step Reckoner. (It was first built in 1673.) The Step Reckoner expanded on Pascal’s ideas and did multiplication by repeated addition and shifting.Jacquard loom, engraving,
1874At the top of the machine is a stack of punched cards that would be fed into the loom to control the weaving pattern. This method of automatically issuing machine instructions was employed by computers well into the 20th centuryDifference Engine
The completed portion of Charles Babbage's Difference Engine, 1832. This advanced calculator was intended to produce logarithm tables used in navigation. The value of numbers was represented by the positions of the toothed wheels marked with decimal numbers.
Babbage, Charles: Analytical Engine
A portion (completed 1910) of Charles Babbage's Analytical Engine. Only partially built at the time of his death in 1871, this portion contains the “mill” (functionally analogous to a modern computer's central processing unit) and a printing mechanism.
The Hollerith census tabulatorThis cover of Scientific American, August 30, 1890, displays various aspects of Herman Hollerith's invention.
Improvements in calculators continued: by the 1880s they could add in the accumulation of partial results, store past results, and print. Then, in 1892, William Seward Burroughs, who along with two other St. Louis, Missouri, businessmen had started the American Arithmometer Company in 1886 in order to build adding machines, obtained a patent for one of the first truly practical and commercially successful calculators. Burroughs died in 1898, and his company was reorganized as the Burroughs Adding Machine Company in Detroit, Michigan, in 1905.
All the calculators—and virtually all the information-processing devices—sold at this time were designed for commercial purposes, not scientific research. By the turn of the century, commercial calculating devices were in common use, as were other special-purpose machines such as one that generated serial numbers for banknotes. As a result, many of the business machine companies in the United States were doing well, including Hollerith’s Tabulating Machine Company.
In 1911 several of these companies combined to form the Computing-Tabulating-Recording Company, or CTR. In 1914 Thomas J. Watson, Sr., left his sales manager position at the National Cash Register Company to become president of CTR, and 10 years later CTR changed its name to International Business Machines Corporation, or IBM. In the second half of the century, IBM would become the giant of the world computer industry, but such commercial gains did not take place until enormous progress had been made in the theoretical understanding of the modern computer during the remarkable decades of the 1930s and ’40s. (This progress is described in the next section, Invention of the modern computer.)
annevar Bush with his Differential Analyzer, c. 1935.
MIT Museum
The Differential Analyzer proved highly useful, and a number of them were built and used at various universities. Still the device was limited to solving this one class of problem, and, as is the case for all analog devices, it produced approximate, albeit practical, solutions. Nevertheless, important applications for analog computers and analog-digital hybrid computers still exist, particularly for simulating complicated dynamical systems such as aircraft flight, nuclear power plant operations, and chemical reactions.
The Harvard Mark I, 1943Designed by Howard Aiken, this electromechanical computer, more than 50 feet (15 metres) long and containing some 750,000 components, was used to make ballistics calculations during World War II.
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