write about the development in chemistry achieved by anciey india
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It is now known that alchemy (the older form of chemistry) had made great strides in India. Ayurveda, which used a variety of minerals, also played an important role in the development of chemistry. It developed as iatrochemistry, which was closely related to medicine. The two main incentives for the development of chemistry were the age-old desires of human beings: to live forever and to get rich. Much of chemistry grew out of the early efforts to develop an elixir and to turn base metals into gold. It is also interesting to note that Needham claimed that earliest distillation of alcohol is attested to through the archaeological finds at Taxila. In fact, the ancient name of alcohol is khola, which sounds so similar to it!
1. Indus Valley Civilization (2600-1900 BC)
The Indus valley civilization was the earliest society, which had developed an elaborate urban system depicted in terms of streets, public baths, temples and granaries etc. They also had the means of mass production of pottery, houses of backed bricks and a script of their own. So we can say that the story of early chemistry in India begins from here.
Pottery: It could be regarded as the earliest chemical process in which materials were mixed, moulded and fired to achieve desirable qualities. Thousands of pieces of pottery were found in the Rajasthan desert, varied in shape, size and colour. They show that prehistoric people knew the art of making pottery by using burnt clay. Coloured and wheel made pottery was found at Harappa. Pottery was decorated with various designs including geometric and floral patterns as well as human and animals figures. Remains of glazed pottery were also found at Mohenjodaro.
Bricks: Burnt bricks were manufactured on a large scale for making houses, drains, boundary walls, public bath etc.
Cement: Gypsum cement had been used in the construction of a well in Mohenjodaro. It was light grey and contained sand, clay, traces of calcium carbonate and lime.
Minerals: The Indus valley people used a number of minerals for a variety of useful products such as medicinal preparations, plasters, hair washes etc. Faience, which is a sort of proto-glass, was quite popular with the Harappans and was used for ornaments. They also smelted and forged a variety of objects from lead, silver, gold, and copper; and also used tin and arsenic to improve the hardness of copper for making artefacts.
2. The Historic Period
According to Rgveda, tanning of leather and dyeing of cotton was practised during this period. During the period c.1000-400 BC they made a particular kind of polished grey pottery known as Painted Grey Ware. Other varieties of pottery, for example, red or Northern Black-Polished (N.B.P.) Ware (600-200 BC), were also made later. These Wares indicate their mastery of control of kiln temperatures as also of the reducing atmosphere. The golden gloss of the NBP Ware is still a chemical mystery and could not be replicated.After the Vedas , came the classical texts like Brahmanas, Upanishadas and Puranas, which also give valuable information about the chemical activities of this period. Kautilya's Arthasastra (KA) was a scientific landmark of this period. KA described the production of salt from the sea and collection of shells, diamonds, pearls and corals. Charaka Samhita and Susruta Samhita were two celebrated Ayurvedic treatises on medicine and surgery. Chemical knowledge of the times especially that related to medicine was compiled in them.
5. Modern Chemistry
Chemistry developed mainly in the form of alchemy and iatrochemistry during AD 1300-1600. But from the early seventeenth century onward a marked decline in the alchemical writings was observed. Alchemy that was practised with full enthusiasm started to fade from the beginning of the Tantric period. This was possibly on account of the realization that alchemy could not deliver the goods it promised. Now it was a period of the ascendance of iatrochemistry. After the decline of alchemy, iatrochemistry probably reached a steady state over the next 150-200 years, but then it too, declined due to the introduction and practice of western medicine in the 20th century. During this period of stagnation, the pharmaceutical industry based on Ayurveda continued to exist, but it too gradually declined. There was a large time gap between the giving up of old methods of production of certain chemicals and the adoption of newer methods based on modern chemical ideas. When the old ones become out fashioned, it took about 100-150 years for the Indians to learn and adopt new techniques and during this time the foreign products poured in. As a result the indigenous units using traditional techniques gradually declined, due to the adverse policies of the rulers. Decline in demand was the other main reason for this.
hope it's helpful for you.......
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It is now known that alchemy (the older form of chemistry) had made great strides in India. Ayurveda, which used a variety of minerals, also played an important role in the development of chemistry. It developed as iatrochemistry, which was closely related to medicine. The two main incentives for the development of chemistry were the age-old desires of human beings: to live forever and to get rich. Much of chemistry grew out of the early efforts to develop an elixir and to turn base metals into gold. It is also interesting to note that Needham claimed that earliest distillation of alcohol is attested to through the archaeological finds at Taxila. In fact, the ancient name of alcohol is khola, which sounds so similar to it!
1. Indus Valley Civilization (2600-1900 BC)
The Indus valley civilization was the earliest society, which had developed an elaborate urban system depicted in terms of streets, public baths, temples and granaries etc. They also had the means of mass production of pottery, houses of backed bricks and a script of their own. So we can say that the story of early chemistry in India begins from here.
Pottery: It could be regarded as the earliest chemical process in which materials were mixed, moulded and fired to achieve desirable qualities. Thousands of pieces of pottery were found in the Rajasthan desert, varied in shape, size and colour. They show that prehistoric people knew the art of making pottery by using burnt clay. Coloured and wheel made pottery was found at Harappa. Pottery was decorated with various designs including geometric and floral patterns as well as human and animals figures. Remains of glazed pottery were also found at Mohenjodaro.
Bricks: Burnt bricks were manufactured on a large scale for making houses, drains, boundary walls, public bath etc.
Cement: Gypsum cement had been used in the construction of a well in Mohenjodaro. It was light grey and contained sand, clay, traces of calcium carbonate and lime.
Minerals: The Indus valley people used a number of minerals for a variety of useful products such as medicinal preparations, plasters, hair washes etc. Faience, which is a sort of proto-glass, was quite popular with the Harappans and was used for ornaments. They also smelted and forged a variety of objects from lead, silver, gold, and copper; and also used tin and arsenic to improve the hardness of copper for making artefacts.
2. The Historic Period
According to Rgveda, tanning of leather and dyeing of cotton was practised during this period. During the period c.1000-400 BC they made a particular kind of polished grey pottery known as Painted Grey Ware. Other varieties of pottery, for example, red or Northern Black-Polished (N.B.P.) Ware (600-200 BC), were also made later. These Wares indicate their mastery of control of kiln temperatures as also of the reducing atmosphere. The golden gloss of the NBP Ware is still a chemical mystery and could not be replicated.After the Vedas , came the classical texts like Brahmanas, Upanishadas and Puranas, which also give valuable information about the chemical activities of this period. Kautilya's Arthasastra (KA) was a scientific landmark of this period. KA described the production of salt from the sea and collection of shells, diamonds, pearls and corals. Charaka Samhita and Susruta Samhita were two celebrated Ayurvedic treatises on medicine and surgery. Chemical knowledge of the times especially that related to medicine was compiled in them.
5. Modern Chemistry
Chemistry developed mainly in the form of alchemy and iatrochemistry during AD 1300-1600. But from the early seventeenth century onward a marked decline in the alchemical writings was observed. Alchemy that was practised with full enthusiasm started to fade from the beginning of the Tantric period. This was possibly on account of the realization that alchemy could not deliver the goods it promised. Now it was a period of the ascendance of iatrochemistry. After the decline of alchemy, iatrochemistry probably reached a steady state over the next 150-200 years, but then it too, declined due to the introduction and practice of western medicine in the 20th century. During this period of stagnation, the pharmaceutical industry based on Ayurveda continued to exist, but it too gradually declined. There was a large time gap between the giving up of old methods of production of certain chemicals and the adoption of newer methods based on modern chemical ideas. When the old ones become out fashioned, it took about 100-150 years for the Indians to learn and adopt new techniques and during this time the foreign products poured in. As a result the indigenous units using traditional techniques gradually declined, due to the adverse policies of the rulers. Decline in demand was the other main reason for this.
hope it's helpful for you.......
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