Discuss how the changes in forest management in the colonial period affected the following groups of people: (a) Shifting cultivators (b) Nomadic and pastoralist communities (c) Firms trading in timber/forest produce (d) Plantation owners (e) Kings/British officials engaged in a shikar.
Answers
Question :-
Discuss how the changes in forest management in the colonial period affected the following groups of people:
(a) Shifting cultivators
(b) Nomadic and pastoralist communities
(c) Firms trading in timber/forest produce
(d) Plantation owners
(e) Kings/British officials engaged in a shikar.
Answer :-
(a) Shifting Cultivators
Shifting cultivation was a traditional agricultural practice in many parts of Asia, Africa, and South America. Parts of the forest are cut and burnt in rotation. After the first monsoon rains, seeds are sown in the ashes, and crops are cultivated. Cultivation is continued for a couple of years. Then the forest is allowed to grow in the area for 12 to 18 years. Then they are cut and burnt once more. This rotation is called Shifting cultivation.
The Colonial government banned Shifting cultivation, as European foresters felt that this would harm the forests and valuable timber would be lost. The Government also found it difficult to calculate taxes when Shifting cultivation was practiced.
The ban displaced many Shifting cultivators. Many of them had to change their occupation. A few Shifting cultivators agitated against the ban.
(b) Nomadic and Pastoralist Communities
Nomadic and pastoralist communities moved about in the mountains and deserts and in the plains and plateaus of India and Africa. The pastoralist communities formed an important part of the population in both countries during the Colonial era. When the Colonial government established control over the forests it affected the pastoralist communities in a big way.
The pastoralist communities always moved from place to place with their cattle. When forests were destroyed by the government to expand agriculture, the Nomads lost grazing fields for their cattle. This brought a lot of hardship to the pastoralist communities.
(c) Firms Trading in Timber/Forest Produce
Large expanses of forests were cut for timber and forest produce. The Colonial Government was worried about this reckless felling of trees. It passed the Indian Forest Act in 1865. This Act was amended in the year 1878. Under this amendment the forests were divided into 3 categories, – reserved, protected and village forests. Villagers and local firms trading in timber and forest produce could not take anything from the reserved or protected forests which had the best trees. This affected the traders immensely.
(d) Plantation Owners
Vast areas of forests were given to European Planters, at a very cheap rate by the Colonial government. Natural forests were cleared to cultivate tea coffee and rubber trees. There was a great demand for these commodities in Europe. These plantations were fenced off and others were not allowed inside.
(e) Kings/British Officials engaged in Shikar
Forest laws banned hunting of deer, partridges, and small animals. People who lived near the forests were deprived of their livelihood and food because of this ban. Contrary to this ban hunting of big animals like the tiger, leopard and wolves became a sport for the kings and the British. The British felt that by killing dangerous animals they could civilize India. The indiscriminate hunting by the British and the Kings almost made certain species of animals extinct.
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Answer:
(a) Shifting Cultivators (i) European foresters regarded shifting cultivation as harmful for the forests. The government banned shifting cultivation. (ii) Shifting cultivators were forcibly displaced from their homes in the forests. (iii) Some had to change occupations, while some resisted through large and small rebellions. (b) Nomadic and Pastoralist Communities (i) The forest laws deprived people of their customary rights and meant severe hardship for the nomadic and pastoralist communities. They could not cut wood for their houses, could not graze their cattle or collect fruits and roots. Hunting and fishing became illegal. (ii) They were forced to steal wood. If they were caught, they were at the mercy of the forest guards and they would have to offer bribes to the guards. (iii) Many pastoralist and nomadic communities like the Korava, Karacha of the Madras Presidency lost their livelihoods. (iv) Some of the nomadic communities began to be called criminal tribes and were forced to work instead in factories, mines and plantations under government supervision. (v) They were also recruited to work in plantations. Their wages were low and conditions of work very bad. (c) Firms Trading in Timber/Forest Produce (i) By the early nineteenth century, oak forests in England were disappearing. This created a problem of timber supply for the Royal Navy. (ii) By the 1820s, search parties were sent to explore the forest resources in India. Trees were felled on a massive scale and large quantities of timber were being exported, from India. (iii) The colonial government took over the forests and gave vast areas to European planters at cheap rates. (iv) The British Government gave many large European trading firms the sole right to trade in the forest products of particular areas. (v) The government gave contracts to contractors who cut trees indiscriminately and made huge profits. (d) Plantation Owners (i) Large areas of natural forests were also cleared to make way for tea, coffee and rubber plantations to meet Europe's growing need for .these commodities. (ii) The colonial government took over the forests, and gave vast areas to European planters at cheap rates. These areas were enclosed and cleared of forests and planted with tea or coffee. (iii) Communities like Santhals from Assam, and Oraons from Jharkhand and Gonds from Chhattisgarh were recruited to work on tea plantations. Their wages were low and conditions of work very bad. (iv) The plantation owners, under the protection and rights given by the British Government, made huge profits. (e) Kings/British Officials Engaged in Shikar (i) In India, Shikar or hunting of tigers and other animals had been. part of the culture of the court and nobility for centuries. (ii) Under colonial rule the scale of hunting increased to such an extent that various species became almost extinct. (iii) The British saw large animals as signs of a wild, primitive and savage society. They believed that by killing dangerous animals the British would civilize India. (iv) The British gave rewards for the killing of tigers, wolves and other large animals on the grounds that they posed a threat to cultivators. (v) The Maharaja of Sarguja alone shot-1157 tigers and 2000 leopards upto 1957. A British Administrator George Yule killed 400 tigers. (vi) Over 80000 tigers, 150000 leopards and 200000 wolves were killed for reward between 1875 and 1925. (vii) Initially certain areas of the forests were reserved for hunting.