Generalisation about people creates
(i) stereotypes
(ii) unity
(iii) gender
Answers
(I)stereotypes is the correct answer
Explanation:
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Answer:
Some prejudices share cross-cultural patterns, but others are more variable and culture specific. Those sharing cross-cultural patterns (sexism, ageism) each combine societal status differences and intimate interdependence. For example, in stereotypes of sex and age, lower-status groups— women and elders—gain stereotypic warmth (from their cooperative interdependence) but lose stereotypic competence (from their lower status); men and middle-aged adults show the opposite tradeoff, stereotypically more competent than warm. Meta-analyses support these widespread ambivalent (mixed) stereotypes for gender and age across cultures. Social class stereotypes often share some similarities (cold but competent rich v warm but incompetent poor). These compensatory warmth v competence stereotypes may function to manage common human dilemmas of interacting across societal and personal positions. However, other stereotypes are more variable and culture specific (ethnicity, race, religion). Case studies of specific race/ethnicities and religions reveal much more cultural variation in their stereotype content, supporting their being responses to particular cultural contexts, apparent accidents of history. To change stereotypes requires understanding their commonalities and differences, their origins and patterns across cultures.
“Universal” is a dangerous word. During most of 20th century, American research on prejudice seemed to assume that its newly discovered principles applied everywhere. In the author's own review (Fiske, 1998), following the lead of a foundational volume (Allport, 1954), culture does not appear. By its absence, universalism is implied, or at least not questioned. That is, to one reviewer at least, processes seemed universal: Categorizing others occurred everywhere. Implicit ingroup bias was widespread. American White-on-Black racism stood in for all kinds of prejudice.
But the science of prejudice was developing, and culture was entering into consideration (e.g., Pettigrew & Meertens, 1995). European research on intergroup relations understood this before American research did. European social psychology generated its own models more sensitive to the European cultural contexts (Yzerbyt & Demoulin, 2010), which then spread to the U.S. For example, European-originated Social Identity Theory posits the relativity of categorization, depending on context, with people aiming for positive and distinctive identities that reflect their category-based behavior (Brewer, 1991; Tajfel, 1982; Turner, 1987). An example would be people identified as immigrants versus native-born, each reflecting past and current cultural contexts.
As a field, American prejudice research took awhile to take culture into account. Most people are not Americans, or even WEIRD (western, educated, industrialized, rich, democratic; Henrich, Heine, & Norenzayan, 2010). Our 20th century WEIRD samples do not stand in for human nature. Mea culpa: The lion's share of the references in my own 1998 review were American and European, on the unspoken assumption that our empirical phenomena represented everyone on the planet. Nevertheless, we Westerners as a field eventually came to our senses, realizing that culture is crucial, as this Perspectives symposium indicates, and to good effect.
Consider as a case study, my own research trajectory. In our lab, we backed into cultural explorations by serendipity. People from other countries contacted us to use our materials, and their results sometimes supported the generality of our U.S. findings and sometimes not. WE had to take notice of what the data were telling us. This essay makes sense of the patterns that emerged over the last two decades of cultural challenges to our work on stereotype content, as an illustration of what prejudice research can gain from taking account of culture. The essay is a Perspective, with examples from our own research program. Per the editorial invitation, this essay is frankly speculative, but consistent with some data.