Question

Who were literacy requirements for voting usually aimed at?

Answer 1

Literacy requirements, in the form of literacy tests, were given to people when they attempted to register to vote. These tests were aimed at African Americans, immigrants, Native Americans, Latinos, and other non-whites so that white Americans could maintain control of the election process.
Literacy tests started during Reconstruction following the Civil War. At this time, newly freed African Americans were the primary targets of the requirements.
Tests were highly subjective, making it possible for election officials to disenfranchise people according to their own prejudices. Such discriminating practices are no longer legal.

Answer 2

Herbert Morris proposed a way of looking atpunishment as it applies to adults in the justice system in a 1981 article in American Philosophical Quarterly.